sulla primary sources
[47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. In fact, many sources can be either primary or secondary depending on the context of the research and of the source itself. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of 30-75% and symptoms including fever of 38 - 41 C (101-105 F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Keep in mind as you use this website, the Web is always changing and evolving. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. Sallust - Spartacus Educational The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Sulla is a central character in the first three, Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the, His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. The Late Republic - Clarkson Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [116] Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus who had dangerously divided their forces. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). Marius - in ancient sources @ attalus.org Newspapers. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. [33] Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. Thus, Sulla was presented with a choice. Graduate Admissions - New York University Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than a promise that Sulla's life would be safe". This brief guide is designed to help students and researchers find and evaluate primary sources available online. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. At the start of his second consulship in 80BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. Encyclopedias. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. However, despite this portrayal, particularly from Plutarch's accounts, it is difficult to determine just how culpable Marius and Sulla were for the chaos that engulfed the Roman Republic During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. [86] He then left Italy with his troops without delay, ignoring legal summons and taking over command from a legate in Macedonia. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. Demanding transfer to Catulus' (Marius' consular colleague) army, he received it. By. Sulla, himself a patrician, thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. When the campaign in Italy started, two theatres emerged, with Sulla facing the younger Marius in the south and Metellus Pius facing Carbo in the north. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. Updated on October 07, 2019. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. Historical documents : how to read them. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. Internet History Sourcebooks: Modern History - Fordham University The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. [127] Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp, but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing won the battle in the night. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. What Is a Primary Source? - Definition & Examples - Study.com Examples include journal articles, reviews . The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. Lucius Cornelius Sulla | UNRV Roman History Gill. [74], During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). There is no single tool that will find everything at UCR, but a good start is to reach . Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . Sulla had total control of the city and Republic of Rome, except for Hispania (which Marius' general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. [155] Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance. Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments. Guide. The Black Death: The Plague, 1331-1770 - University of Iowa Published by at 29, 2022. Constitutional reforms of Sulla - Wikipedia Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. He never allowed his debaucheries to interfere with his duties but he devoted all his leisure time to them. Website. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. He was a leader of the optimates, which sought to maintain senatorial supremacy against the populist reforms advocated by the populares, headed by Marius. [90] By the end of 87BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86BC. [43] Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99BC. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. [85], After the elections, Sulla forced the consuls designate to swear to uphold his laws. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . [citation needed], Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. [118], For 82BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. Faced with mobilizing a sufficient fighting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. His family was patrician, part of the ruling class in ancient Rome. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. Biographies of historical and famous people. Primary Resources - Primary Resources and Archives - Research Guides at The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". Understanding Context: Awareness of the interconnection of events from the past, present and future. [citation needed]. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. [57], The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. [6] He also disbanded his legions and, through these gestures, attempted to show the re-establishment of normal consular government. [67], Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89BC, was not uncontested. Although he was able to regain the command, his political setup in Rome collapsed almost as soon as he left Italy, and the war would . Years later, in 91BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. Plutarch, writing much . Primary and Secondary Sources: What's the Difference? The allies in central and southern Italy had fought side by side with Rome in several wars and had grown restive under Roman autocratic rule, wanting instead Roman citizenship and the privileges it conferred. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across the plain. [citation needed], The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. Making of America. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original documents. A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material or first-hand information. was the first man to use the army to establish a personal autocracy at Rome.. Sulla first came into prominence when he served as quaestor (107-106 B.C.) Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. The collection currently contains . [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. It is intended to serve the needs of teachers and students in college survey courses in modern European history and American history, as well as in modern Western Civilization and World Cultures. Primary Sources on Copyright - Record Viewer [42], Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. [75], Speaking to the men, Sulla complained to them of the outrageous behaviour of Marius and Sulpicius. He brought Pompeii under siege. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. Washington, DC, March 19, 2013 - The U.S. invasion of Iraq turned out to be a textbook case of flawed assumptions, wrong-headed intelligence, propaganda manipulation, and administrative ad hockery, according to the National Security Archive's briefing book of declassified documents posted today to mark the 10 th anniversary of the war. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. [81.3] Magnesia, the only city in Asia that remained loyal, was defended against Mithridates with the greatest courage. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. [21], This article is about the Roman dictator. [152], Sulla was red-blond[154] and blue-eyed, and had a dead-white face covered with red marks. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla's Reforms as Dictator - World History Encyclopedia Life dates 138 BC-78 BC. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. "[147] Plutarch claims he had seen Sulla's personal motto carved on his tomb on the Campus Martius. With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. Introduction. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. Lucius Cornelius Sulla | Encyclopedia.com After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. In the decades before Sulla had become dictator, Roman politics became increasingly violent. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. [22] His first wife was called either Ilia or Julia. aking of America (MoA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. be determined. Catulus, with Sulla, moved to block their advance; the two men likely cooperated well. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. A primary source is a first-hand or contemporary account of an event or topic. From this distance, Sulla remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (e.g. Primary Sources - Research Guides at New York University The Acropolis was then besieged. Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Primary Sources [99], Discovering a weak point in the walls and popular discontent with the Athenian tyrant Aristion, Sulla stormed and captured Athens (except the Acropolis) on 1 March 86BC. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. It was not until he was in his very late forties and almost past the age . [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. An inscription on a sixteenth-century tombstone in Istanbul would be a primary source from the Classical Ottoman Age. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. Sulla - World History Encyclopedia Archives; Correspondence [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. These sieges lasted until spring of 86BC. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla - Primary Source Edition Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally. A primary source (also called original . Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. You may copy and distribute the translations and commentaries in this resource, or parts of such translations and commentaries, in any medium . His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). 134/3 eagle's brood foretells the number of Marius' consulships. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged. [81] He sent his army back to Capua[82] and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. The law was vetoed by one of the tribunes, but when Quintus Pompeius Rufus went to Pompey Strabo's army to take command under the Senate's authority, he was promptly assassinated after his arrival and assumption of command, almost certainly on Strabo's orders. to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Marius, elected again to the consulship of 101, came to Catulus' aid; Sulla, in charge of supporting army provisioning, did so competently and was able to feed both armies. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. Finding Primary Sources for Teachers and Students At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. [21] Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. Essentially, they're sources about primary sources. Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy.[74]. [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. [66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. A research article or study proving this would be a primary source. Research Guides: Canadian History: Primary Sources His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion but that it was his cunning that was by far the most dangerous. . An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest. Editor: Paul Halsall. [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. What Is a Primary Source? He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. If Sulla had married one of the Julii Caesares, this could explain Marius' willingness to entrust such an important task to a young man with no military experience, as Marius too had married into that family. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. Eyeglasses from Colonial America would be a primary source about Early American History. These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. Primary and Secondary Sources: How Should They Be Used? Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the east, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles (i.e. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. History has portrayed them as being emblematic for a generation of chaos in Roman society. [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. Secondary sources include: Essays analyzing novels, works of art, and other original creations. Books. Sulla and the proscriptions - Jerry Fielden [107], In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. They are original research, thinking, or discovery on a topic or event, and are written or created by people who actually experienced the event .